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The struggle between the temporal power of the emperors and the spiritual influence of the popes came to a head in the reigns of Pope Nicholas II (1059–1061) and Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085). The popes fought to free the appointment of bishops, abbots and other prelates from the power of secular lords and monarchs into which it had fallen.
In later times, Gregory VII became an exemplar of papal supremacy, and his memory was invoked both positively and negatively, reflecting later writers' attitude to the Catholic Church and the papacy. Beno of Santi Martino e Silvestro, who opposed Gregory VII in the Investiture Controversy, accused him of necromancy, cruelty, tyranny, and blasphemy.
Gregory VII's ban on lay investiture was a key element of the reform, ultimately contributing to the centralized papacy of the later Middle Ages. [7] The reform of the church, both within it, and in relation to the Holy Roman Emperor and the other lay rulers of Europe, was Gregory VII's life work. It was based on his conviction that the church ...
In 1075, Gregory VII proclaimed the dictatus papae, asserting papal supremacy and removing bishops from imperial appointment. [2] This initiated a period of conflict known as the Investiture Dispute, highlighted by Henry IV's excommunication and his subsequent penance at Canossa. At the end of this conflict, the Pope succeeded in freeing ...
Quickest-spread revolt in English history, and the most popular revolt of the Late Middle Ages. 1381: The Bible is translated into English by John Wycliffe. First print published in English 1386: October 18–19th: The University of Heidelberg is founded. It is the oldest university in Germany. 1389: June 15: Battle of Kosovo in Serbia.
Gregory's first attempts in foreign policy were towards a reconciliation with the Normans of Robert Guiscard; in the end the two parties did not meet. After a failed call for a crusade to the princes of northern Europe, [ 8 ] and after obtaining the support of other Norman princes such as Landulf VI of Benevento and Richard I of Capua , Gregory ...
But while the basic structure of the Church was reaffirmed, there were noticeable changes to answer complaints that the Counter Reformers tacitly were willing to admit were legitimate. Among the conditions to be corrected by Catholic reformers was the growing divide between the priests and the flock; many members of the clergy in the rural ...
The antagonism between the cardinal-bishops and cardinal-priests was intensified by the fact that Gregory VII clearly favored the latter. When Antipope Clement III was installed in Rome, he sentenced Gregory VII to exile. Gregory was joined by seven of eighteen [notes 1] so-called "Gregorian" cardinal-priests and only one cardinal bishop.
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