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The Coleman–Liau index is a readability test designed by Meri Coleman and T. L. Liau to gauge the understandability of a text. Like the Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level, Gunning fog index, SMOG index, and Automated Readability Index, its output approximates the U.S. grade level thought necessary to comprehend the text.
The California Job Case was a compartmentalized box for printing in the 19th century, sizes corresponding to the commonality of letters. The frequency of letters in text has been studied for use in cryptanalysis, and frequency analysis in particular, dating back to the Arab mathematician al-Kindi (c. AD 801–873 ), who formally developed the method (the ciphers breakable by this technique go ...
The Raygor estimate graph is a readability metric for English text. It was developed by Alton L. Raygor, who published it in 1977. [1] The US grade level is calculated by the average number of sentences and letters per hundred words. These averages are plotted onto a specific graph where the intersection of the average number of sentences and ...
Like fractal dimension, it is possible to calculate Zipf dimension, which is a useful parameter in the analysis of texts. [ 37 ] It has been argued that Benford's law is a special bounded case of Zipf's law, [ 36 ] with the connection between these two laws being explained by their both originating from scale invariant functional relations from ...
A typical distribution of letters in English language text. Weak ciphers do not sufficiently mask the distribution, and this might be exploited by a cryptanalyst to read the message. In cryptanalysis, frequency analysis (also known as counting letters) is the study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a ciphertext.
This example is the most basic and includes unique references for each citation, showing the page numbers in the reference list. This repeats the citation, changing the page number. A disadvantage is that this can create a lot of redundant text in the reference list when a source is cited many times. So consider using one of the alternatives ...
A short-cite – similar to what some citation authorities call a shortened citation or shortened form — is an abbreviated way of identifying or linking to the full citation of a source. Many forms of short cites have been devised; the most common form on Wikipedia is "author-date", which uses the last name of one or more authors and the year ...
The chance of drawing a given letter in the text is (number of times that letter appears / length of the text). The chance of drawing that same letter again (without replacement) is (appearances − 1 / text length − 1). The product of these two values gives you the chance of drawing that letter twice in a row. One can find this product for ...