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  2. Stefan–Boltzmann law - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan–Boltzmann_law

    At Earth, this energy is passing through a sphere with a radius of a 0, the distance between the Earth and the Sun, and the irradiance (received power per unit area) is given by = The Earth has a radius of R ⊕ , and therefore has a cross-section of π R ⊕ 2 {\displaystyle \pi R_{\oplus }^{2}} .

  3. Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikheyev–Smirnov...

    In the case of normal neutrino mass hierarchy, and ,, transitions occurred inside the star, then and oscillated inside the Earth. Due to the differences in the distance traveled by neutrinos to Kamiokande, IMB and Baksan within the Earth, the MSW effect can partially explain the difference of the Kamiokande and IMB energy spectrum of events.

  4. Radiative transfer - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_transfer

    Solutions to the equation of radiative transfer form an enormous body of work. The differences however, are essentially due to the various forms for the emission and absorption coefficients. If scattering is ignored, then a general steady state solution in terms of the emission and absorption coefficients may be written:

  5. Radiation pressure - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure

    The above treatment for an incident wave accounts for the radiation pressure experienced by a black (totally absorbing) body. If the wave is specularly reflected, then the recoil due to the reflected wave will further contribute to the radiation pressure. In the case of a perfect reflector, this pressure will be identical to the pressure caused ...

  6. Solar irradiance - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_irradiance

    The oblique sunbeam distributes its light energy over twice as much area. Insolation onto a surface is largest when the surface directly faces (is normal to) the sun. As the angle between the surface and the Sun moves from normal, the insolation is reduced in proportion to the angle's cosine ; see effect of Sun angle on climate .

  7. Mass–energy equivalence - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massenergy_equivalence

    Massenergy equivalence states that all objects having mass, or massive objects, have a corresponding intrinsic energy, even when they are stationary.In the rest frame of an object, where by definition it is motionless and so has no momentum, the mass and energy are equal or they differ only by a constant factor, the speed of light squared (c 2).

  8. Absorption (electromagnetic radiation) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic...

    By recording the attenuation of light for various wavelengths, an absorption spectrum can be obtained. In physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is how matter (typically electrons bound in atoms) takes up a photon's energy—and so transforms electromagnetic energy into internal energy of the absorber (for example, thermal energy). [1]

  9. Outgoing longwave radiation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outgoing_longwave_radiation

    The growth in Earth's energy imbalance from satellite and in situ measurements (2005–2019). A rate of +1.0 W/m 2 summed over the planet's surface equates to a continuous heat uptake of about 500 terawatts (~0.3% of the incident solar radiation). [7] [8] Outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) constitutes a critical component of Earth's energy ...