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In spherical coordinates in N dimensions, with the parametrization x = rθ ∈ R N with r representing a positive real radius and θ an element of the unit sphere S N−1, = + + where Δ S N−1 is the Laplace–Beltrami operator on the (N − 1)-sphere, known as the spherical Laplacian.
The connection Laplacian, also known as the rough Laplacian, is a differential operator acting on the various tensor bundles of a manifold, defined in terms of a Riemannian- or pseudo-Riemannian metric. When applied to functions (i.e. tensors of rank 0), the connection Laplacian is often called the Laplace–Beltrami operator.
The spherical Laplacian is the Laplace–Beltrami operator on the (n − 1)-sphere with its canonical metric of constant sectional curvature 1. It is convenient to regard the sphere as isometrically embedded into R n as the unit sphere centred at the origin. Then for a function f on S n−1, the spherical Laplacian is defined by
In Cartesian coordinates, the Laplacian of a function (,,) is = = = + +. The Laplacian is a measure of how much a function is changing over a small sphere centered at the point. When the Laplacian is equal to 0, the function is called a harmonic function .
Starting from homogeneous initial conditions with only one point-like perturbation, the correct growth process would yield a circle (left). If growth is faster along the coordinate axes, which is caused by the anisotropic effect of central difference discretization, the circle would turn into star-shaped structure, as the errors propagate (right):.
The random walk normalized Laplacian can also be called the left normalized Laplacian := + since the normalization is performed by multiplying the Laplacian by the normalization matrix + on the left. It has each row summing to zero since P = D + A {\displaystyle P=D^{+}A} is right stochastic , assuming all the weights are non-negative.
Because is a linear differential operator, the solution () to a general system of this type can be written as an integral over a distribution of source given by (): = (, ′) (′) ′ where the Green's function for Laplacian in three variables (, ′) describes the response of the system at the point to a point source located at ...
The gradient of a function is obtained by raising the index of the differential , whose components are given by: =; =; =, = = The divergence of a vector field with components is
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