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Perfect substitutes have a linear utility function and a constant marginal rate of substitution, see figure 3. [7] If goods X and Y are perfect substitutes, any different consumption bundle will result in the consumer obtaining the same utility level for all the points on the indifference curve (utility function). [8]
For two goods, fuel and new cars (consists of fuel consumption), are complements; that is, one is used with the other. In these cases the cross elasticity of demand will be negative, as shown by the decrease in demand for cars when the price for fuel will rise. In the case of perfect substitutes, the cross elasticity of demand is equal to ...
Pricing the base good at a relatively low price - this approach allows easy entry by consumers (e.g. low-price consumer printer vs. high-price cartridge) Pricing the base good at a relatively high price to the complementary good - this approach creates a barrier to entry and exit (e.g., a costly car vs inexpensive gas)
The concept of the elasticity of substitution was developed by two different economists, each with their own focus. One of these economists was John Hicks, who defined elasticity of substitution as the change in percentage in the relative number of factors of production used, given a particular change in percentage in relative prices or marginal products.
Constant elasticity of substitution (CES) is a common specification of many production functions and utility functions in neoclassical economics.CES holds that the ability to substitute one input factor with another (for example labour with capital) to maintain the same level of production stays constant over different production levels.
In a competitive market, it measures the percentage change in the two inputs used in response to a percentage change in their prices. [2] It gives a measure of the curvature of an isoquant, and thus, the substitutability between inputs (or goods), i.e. how easy it is to substitute one input (or good) for the other. [3]
Tight refining supply has kept the gap wide between wholesale gasoline futures and retail prices, currently at about $1.25 a gallon, far exceeding the average of 88 cents over the past five years.
They show the extent to which the firm in question has the ability to substitute between two different inputs (x and y in the graph) at will in order to produce the same level of output (see: Graph C)). They also represent different quantity combinations of two goods which adhere to a budget constraint. Thus, they can be used as a tool to help ...