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In null-hypothesis significance testing, the p-value [note 1] is the probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the result actually observed, under the assumption that the null hypothesis is correct. [2] [3] A very small p-value means that such an extreme observed outcome would be very unlikely under the null hypothesis.
The p-value is not the probability that the observed effects were produced by random chance alone. [2] The p-value is computed under the assumption that a certain model, usually the null hypothesis, is true. This means that the p-value is a statement about the relation of the data to that hypothesis. [2]
Under Fisher's method, two small p-values P 1 and P 2 combine to form a smaller p-value.The darkest boundary defines the region where the meta-analysis p-value is below 0.05.. For example, if both p-values are around 0.10, or if one is around 0.04 and one is around 0.25, the meta-analysis p-value is around 0
The cumulative distribution function (shown as F(x)) gives the p values as a function of the q values. The quantile function does the opposite: it gives the q values as a function of the p values. Note that the portion of F(x) in red is a horizontal line segment.
Cohen's kappa measures the agreement between two raters who each classify N items into C mutually exclusive categories. The definition of is =, where p o is the relative observed agreement among raters, and p e is the hypothetical probability of chance agreement, using the observed data to calculate the probabilities of each observer randomly selecting each category.
Killeen acknowledges this lack of information, but suggests that p-rep better captures the way naive experimenters conceptualize p-values and statistical hypothesis testing. Among the criticisms of p-rep is the fact that while it attempts to estimate replicability, it ignores results from other studies which can accurately guide this estimate. [4]
The precise statement of the P versus NP problem was introduced in 1971 by Stephen Cook in his seminal paper "The complexity of theorem proving procedures" [3] (and independently by Leonid Levin in 1973 [4]). Although the P versus NP problem was formally defined in 1971, there were previous inklings of the problems involved, the difficulty of ...
A p-value that satisfies this guarantee is also called a post-hoc p-value. As p ′ {\displaystyle p^{\prime }} is a post-hoc p-value if and only if p ′ = 1 / E {\displaystyle p^{\prime }=1/E} for some e-value E {\displaystyle E} , it is possible to view this as an alternative definition of an e-value.