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Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials, which are drugs used to treat infections. [2] This resistance affects all classes of microbes, including bacteria (antibiotic resistance), viruses (antiviral resistance), parasites (antiparasitic resistance), and fungi (antifungal ...
The evolution of bacteria on a "Mega-Plate" petri dish A list of antibiotic resistant bacteria is provided below. These bacteria have shown antibiotic resistance (or antimicrobial resistance). Gram positive Clostridioides difficile Clostridioides difficile is a nosocomial pathogen that causes diarrheal disease worldwide. Diarrhea caused by C. difficile can be life-threatening. Infections are ...
In clinical medicine, antibiotics are most frequently prescribed on the basis of a person's symptoms and medical guidelines.This method of antibiotic selection is called empiric therapy, [1] and it is based on knowledge about what bacteria cause an infection, and to what antibiotics bacteria may be sensitive or resistant. [1]
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics have low propensity to induce bacterial resistance and are less likely to disrupt the microbiome (normal microflora). [3] On the other hand, indiscriminate use of broad-spectrum antibiotics may not only induce the development of bacterial resistance and promote the emergency of multidrug-resistant organisms, but also cause off-target effects due to dysbiosis.
Antimicrobial resistance is genetically based; resistance is mediated by the acquisition of extrachromosomal genetic elements containing genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics. Examples of such elements include plasmids , transposable genetic elements , and genomic islands , which can be transferred between bacteria through ...
Based upon a number of different observations, including that the gram-positive bacteria are the most sensitive to antibiotics and that the gram-negative bacteria are, in general, resistant to antibiotics, it has been proposed that the outer cell membrane in gram-negative bacteria (diderms) evolved as a protective mechanism against antibiotic ...
Simultaneously, antimicrobial resistance genes within pathogen and plasmid genomes are sequenced and aligned to the taxonomically classified pathogen genomes to generate an antimicrobial resistance profile – analogous to antibiotic sensitivity testing – to facilitate antimicrobial stewardship and allow for the optimization of treatment ...
The increased antimicrobial resistance profile of these pathogens varies, however they arise from similar causes. One common cause of antibiotic resistance is due to incorrect dosing. When a sub-therapeutic dose is prescribed, or a patient chooses to use less of their prescribed antibiotic, bacteria are given the opportunity to adapt to the ...
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