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Biomedical sensors working in the microwave range relies on dielectric spectroscopy to detect changes in the dielectric properties over a frequency range, such as non-invasive continuous blood glucose monitoring. [37] [38] The IFAC database can be used as a resource to get the dielectric properties for human body tissues. [39]
The neutral value of the pH depends on the temperature and is lower than 7 if the temperature increases above 25 °C. The pH range is commonly given as zero to 14, but a pH value can be less than 0 for very concentrated strong acids or greater than 14 for very concentrated strong bases. [2]
X-ray generators in the range 20–60 kV are used, which allow excitation of a broad range of atoms. The continuous spectrum consists of "bremsstrahlung" radiation: radiation produced when high-energy electrons passing through the tube are progressively decelerated by the material of the tube anode (the "target"). A typical tube output spectrum ...
At the midpoint between the two pK a values, the trace amount of net negative and trace of net positive ions balance, so that average net charge of all forms present is zero. [39] This pH is known as the isoelectric point pI, so pI = 1 / 2 (pK a1 + pK a2). For amino acids with charged side chains, the pK a of the side chain is involved.