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The standard English straddling checkerboard has 28 characters and in this cipher these became "full stop" and "numbers shift". Numbers were sent by a numbers shift, followed by the actual plaintext digits in repeated pairs, followed by another shift. Then, similarly to the basic Nihilist, a digital additive was added in, which was called ...
In number theory, reversing the digits of a number n sometimes produces another number m that is divisible by n. This happens trivially when n is a palindromic number; the nontrivial reverse divisors are 1089, 2178, 10989, 21978, 109989, 219978, 1099989, 2199978, ... (sequence A008919 in the OEIS).
The most direct method of calculating a modular exponent is to calculate b e directly, then to take this number modulo m. Consider trying to compute c, given b = 4, e = 13, and m = 497: c ≡ 4 13 (mod 497) One could use a calculator to compute 4 13; this comes out to 67,108,864. Taking this value modulo 497, the answer c is determined to be 445.
The Diffie–Hellman problem (DHP) is a mathematical problem first proposed by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman [1] in the context of cryptography and serves as the theoretical basis of the Diffie–Hellman key exchange and its derivatives.
Use the extended Euclidean algorithm to compute k −1, the modular multiplicative inverse of k mod 2 w, where w is the number of bits in a word. This inverse will exist since the numbers are odd and the modulus has no odd factors. For each number in the list, multiply it by k −1 and take the least significant word of the result.
For uneven number of terms in the generator polynomial there can be a period of ; however, these generator polynomials (with odd number of terms) do not discover all odd number of errors, so they should be avoided. A list of the corresponding generators with even number of terms can be found in the link mentioned at the beginning of this section.
To determine if a number is a power of two, conceptually we may repeatedly do integer divide by two until the number won't divide by 2 evenly; if the only factor left is 1, the original number was a power of 2. Using bit and logical operators, there is a simple expression which will return true (1) or false (0):
A graph and its transpose. In the mathematical and algorithmic study of graph theory, the converse, [1] transpose [2] or reverse [3] of a directed graph G is another directed graph on the same set of vertices with all of the edges reversed compared to the orientation of the corresponding edges in G.