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Chemist Linus Pauling first developed the hybridisation theory in 1931 to explain the structure of simple molecules such as methane (CH 4) using atomic orbitals. [2] Pauling pointed out that a carbon atom forms four bonds by using one s and three p orbitals, so that "it might be inferred" that a carbon atom would form three bonds at right angles (using p orbitals) and a fourth weaker bond ...
In particular, Pauling introduced the concept of hybridisation, where atomic s and p orbitals are combined to give hybrid sp, sp 2, and sp 3 orbitals. Hybrid orbitals proved powerful in explaining the molecular geometries of simple molecules like methane, which is tetrahedral with an sp 3 carbon atom and bond angles of 109.5° between the four ...
In chemistry, isovalent or second order hybridization is an extension of orbital hybridization, the mixing of atomic orbitals into hybrid orbitals which can form chemical bonds, to include fractional numbers of atomic orbitals of each type (s, p, d). It allows for a quantitative depiction of bond formation when the molecular geometry deviates ...
Since the number of atoms in a macroscopic piece of solid is a very large number (N ≈ 10 22), the number of orbitals that hybridize with each other is very large. For this reason, the adjacent levels are very closely spaced in energy (of the order of 10 −22 eV), [4] [5] [6] and can be considered to form a continuum, an energy band.
Hybridization is a model that describes how atomic orbitals combine to form new orbitals that better match the geometry of molecules. Atomic orbitals that are similar in energy combine to make hybrid orbitals. For example, the carbon in methane (CH 4) undergoes sp 3 hybridization to form four equivalent orbitals, resulting in a tetrahedral shape.
Linus Pauling explained the importance of orbital overlap in the molecular bond angles observed through experimentation; it is the basis for orbital hybridization. As s orbitals are spherical (and have no directionality) and p orbitals are oriented 90° to each other, a theory was needed to explain why molecules such as methane (CH 4) had ...
The "periodic" nature of the filling of orbitals, as well as emergence of the s, p, d, and f "blocks", is more obvious if this order of filling is given in matrix form, with increasing principal quantum numbers starting the new rows ("periods") in the matrix. Then, each subshell (composed of the first two quantum numbers) is repeated as many ...
Isovalent hybridization refers to advanced or second order atomic orbital mixing that does not produce simple sp, sp 2, and sp 3 hybridization schemes. For molecules with lone pairs, the bonding orbitals are isovalent hybrids since different fractions of s and p orbitals are mixed to achieve optimal bonding.