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CTCF binds to an average of about 55,000 DNA sites in 19 diverse cell types (12 normal and 7 immortal) and in total 77,811 distinct binding sites across all 19 cell types. [29] CTCF's ability to bind to multiple sequences through the usage of various combinations of its zinc fingers earned it the status of a “multivalent protein”. [ 5 ]
CTCF molecules can form homodimers on DNA, which can be co-bound by cohesin; this chromatin loop structure helps constrain the ability of enhancers within the loop to target genes outside the loop. Loops with CTCF and cohesin at the start and end of the loop that restrict enhancer-gene targeting are "insulated neighborhoods."
Two of these cell cycle regulation genes that are known to interact with CTCF are hTERT and C-MYC. In these cases, a loss of function mutation to the CTCF insulator gene changes the expression patterns and may affect the interplay between cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis and lead to tumourigenesis or other problems. [2]
First, the cell genomes are cross-linked with formaldehyde, [28] which introduces bonds that "freeze" interactions between genomic loci. Treatment of cells with 1-3% formaldehyde, for 10-30min at room temperature is most common, however, standardization for preventing high protein-DNA cross linking is necessary, as this may negatively affect ...
Excel's storage of numbers in binary format also affects its accuracy. [3] To illustrate, the lower figure tabulates the simple addition 1 + x − 1 for several values of x. All the values of x begin at the 15 th decimal, so Excel must take them into account. Before calculating the sum 1 + x, Excel first approximates x as a binary number
CTCF forms methylation-sensitive insulators that regulate X-chromosome inactivation. Transcriptional repressor CTCFL (this protein) is a paralog of CTCF and appears to be expressed primarily in the cytoplasm of spermatocytes, unlike CTCF which is expressed primarily in the nucleus of somatic cells. CTCF and CTCFL are normally expressed in a ...
Accumulation at CTCF sites: This happens due to direct interaction of cohesin subunits SA2 and SCC1 with CTCF. [30] Briefly, in the process of loop extrusion, cohesin moves actively along the two DNA double helices, translocating one of them with respect to the other. Thus, the loop can become smaller or larger.
The TCF/LEF family (T cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor family) is a group of genes that encode transcription factors which bind to DNA through a SOX-like high mobility group domain. They are involved in the Wnt signaling pathway , particularly during embryonic [ 2 ] and stem-cell development, [ 3 ] but also had been found to play a role in ...