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Although they stressed that parents must distinguish between needs and desires of children, in particular of older children, they denied their readers a guideline of how to tell needs and desires apart. [125] With a view to infants, they believe that needs and desires are plainly identical. [126] In general, they use both terms synonymously. [127]
The child may perceive relationships as inconsistent and undependable. Further, despite harsh and inconsistent treatment many of the children remain attached to their parents, complicating the development of new attachment relationships. Foster parents may also present barriers to forming healthy attachment relationships.
A child's "uncles and aunts" (parents' siblings and their spouses) also contribute to the child's psycho-social enrichment. [ 47 ] Although it has been debated for years, and there are differences across cultures, research has shown that the three basic aspects of attachment theory are, to some degree, universal. [ 48 ]
Older parents tend to be more established in their careers when they have children, leading to potentially greater financial resources and opportunities to which their children are exposed.
The pioneer experiments of Levy (1937) also indicate that the mere presence of a baby on a mother's lap is sufficient to make an older child much more clinging. (Bowlby, 1969/1982, page 260) [75] When children see a rival contending for a caregiver's attention, the children try to get close to the caregiver and capture the caregiver's attention.
A child's attachment is largely influenced by their primary caregiver's sensitivity to their needs. Parents who consistently (or almost always) respond to their child's needs will create securely attached children. Such children are certain that their parents will be responsive to their needs and communications. [15]
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Some focus on parents with children from birth to 3 years old (Hamadani et al., 2006), [10] but others are designed for parents with children from 3 upwards. [11] Typically, programmes that focus on the younger age group have a health, nutrition and/or stimulation focus and those for older children have a social, learning and education focus. [3]