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In mathematics and computer programming, exponentiating by squaring is a general method for fast computation of large positive integer powers of a number, or more generally of an element of a semigroup, like a polynomial or a square matrix. Some variants are commonly referred to as square-and-multiply algorithms or binary exponentiation.
The same is done for each digit of the multiplicand and the result in each case is shifted one position to the left. As a final step, all the individual products are added to arrive at the total product of the two multi-digit numbers. [69] Other techniques used for multiplication are the grid method and the lattice method. [70]
An operation can be legal in principle, but the result can be impossible to represent in the specified format, because the exponent is too large or too small to encode in the exponent field. Such an event is called an overflow (exponent too large), underflow (exponent too small) or denormalization (precision loss).
When an exponent is a positive integer, that exponent indicates how many copies of the base are multiplied together. For example, 3 5 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 = 243. The base 3 appears 5 times in the multiplication, because the exponent is 5. Here, 243 is the 5th power of 3, or 3 raised to the 5th power.
Multiplication can also be thought of as scaling. Here, 2 is being multiplied by 3 using scaling, giving 6 as a result. Animation for the multiplication 2 × 3 = 6 4 × 5 = 20. The large rectangle is made up of 20 squares, each 1 unit by 1 unit. Area of a cloth 4.5m × 2.5m = 11.25m 2; 4 1 / 2 × 2 1 / 2 = 11 1 / 4
The second most important decision is in the choice of the base of arithmetic, here ten. There are many considerations. The scratchpad variable d must be able to hold the result of a single-digit multiply plus the carry from the prior digit's multiply. In base ten, a sixteen-bit integer is certainly adequate as it allows up to 32767.
Karatsuba multiplication of az+b and cz+d (boxed), and 1234 and 567 with z=100. Magenta arrows denote multiplication, amber denotes addition, silver denotes subtraction and cyan denotes left shift. (A), (B) and (C) show recursion with z=10 to obtain intermediate values. The Karatsuba algorithm is a fast multiplication algorithm.
Modular exponentiation can be performed with a negative exponent e by finding the modular multiplicative inverse d of b modulo m using the extended Euclidean algorithm. That is: c = b e mod m = d −e mod m, where e < 0 and b ⋅ d ≡ 1 (mod m). Modular exponentiation is efficient to compute, even for very large integers.
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