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  2. William E. Cross Jr. - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_E._Cross_Jr.

    William E. Cross Jr. (1940 - December 5, 2024) was a theorist and researcher in the field of ethnic identity development, specifically Black identity development. [1] He is best known for his nigrescence model, first detailed in a 1971 publication, and his book, Shades of Black , published in 1991.

  3. Ethnic identity development - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_identity_development

    Further, researchers also suggest that racial and ethnic identity development must be viewed, studied, and considered alongside the other normative developmental processes (e.g., gender identity development) and cannot be considered in a vacuum - racial and ethnic identity exist in particular contexts. [28]

  4. Biracial and multiracial identity development - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biracial_and_multiracial...

    Biracial and multiracial identity development is described as a process across the life span that is based on internal and external forces such as individual family structure, cultural knowledge, physical appearance, geographic location, peer culture, opportunities for exploration, socio-historical context, etc. [1]

  5. Nigrescence - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigrescence

    His theory assumed that African Americans are "believed to be socialized into the predominant culture, which resulted in diminished racial identification", [1] and thus the Nigrescence model posits that an encounter with an instance of racism or racial discrimination may precipitate the exploration and formation of racial identity, and foster a ...

  6. White Racial Identity Development - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Racial_Identity...

    The White Racial Identity Model was developed by an African American psychologist, Janet Helms in 1992. [3] It is a racial and ethnic identity model created specifically for people who identify as White. This theory, heavily influenced by William Cross, has become a widely referenced and studied theory on White racial identity development. [4]

  7. Cross-race effect - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-race_effect

    In social psychology, the cross-race effect is described as the "ingroup advantage," whereas in other fields, the effect can be seen as a specific form of the "ingroup advantage" since it is only applied in interracial or inter-ethnic situations. [1] The cross-race effect is thought to contribute to difficulties in cross-race identification, as ...

  8. Racial and ethnic misclassification in the United States

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_and_ethnic...

    Pervasive racial and/or ethnic misclassification is also related to a weaker sense of racial/ethnic identity, [42] which has negative consequences for the self-esteem and self-image of groups that face racism. [43]

  9. Fassinger's model of gay and lesbian identity development

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fassinger's_Model_of_Gay...

    In 1991, Susan R. McCarn, a colleague of Fassinger's, studied identity development among a group of thirty-eight lesbians diversifying in age, education, race, ethnicity, and occupation. [1] The analysis of the results of this study lead to the establishment of two processes and four phases, in 1996. [ 2 ]