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Vectors are defined in spherical coordinates by (r, θ, φ), where r is the length of the vector, θ is the angle between the positive Z-axis and the vector in question (0 ≤ θ ≤ π), and; φ is the angle between the projection of the vector onto the xy-plane and the positive X-axis (0 ≤ φ < 2π).
The polar angle is denoted by [,]: it is the angle between the z-axis and the radial vector connecting the origin to the point in question. The azimuthal angle is denoted by φ ∈ [ 0 , 2 π ] {\displaystyle \varphi \in [0,2\pi ]} : it is the angle between the x -axis and the projection of the radial vector onto the xy -plane.
For example, word2vec has been used to map a vector space of words in one language to a vector space constructed from another language. Relationships between translated words in both spaces can be used to assist with machine translation of new words.
The flow field around an airplane is a vector field in R 3, here visualized by bubbles that follow the streamlines showing a wingtip vortex. Vector fields are commonly used to create patterns in computer graphics. Here: abstract composition of curves following a vector field generated with OpenSimplex noise.
In Cartesian coordinates, the divergence of a continuously differentiable vector field = + + is the scalar-valued function: = = (, , ) (, , ) = + +.. As the name implies, the divergence is a (local) measure of the degree to which vectors in the field diverge.
For example, for the 2×2 matrix = [], the half-vectorization is = []. There exist unique matrices transforming the half-vectorization of a matrix to its vectorization and vice versa called, respectively, the duplication matrix and the elimination matrix .
Spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ) as often used in mathematics: radial distance r, azimuthal angle θ, and polar angle φ. The meanings of θ and φ have been swapped compared to the physics convention. A spherical vector is another method for extending the concept of polar vectors into three dimensions.
If V is a vector space over a field k, the set of all linear functionals from V to k is itself a vector space over k with addition and scalar multiplication defined pointwise. This space is called the dual space of V , or sometimes the algebraic dual space , when a topological dual space is also considered.