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As early as the 19th century, kratom was in use for the treatment of opioid addiction and withdrawal. [ 10 ] [ 4 ] As of 2018 [update] , a review of mental health aspects of kratom use mentioned opioid replacement and withdrawal as primary motivations for kratom use: almost 50% of the approximately 8,000 kratom users surveyed indicated kratom ...
Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the Papaver somniferum plant (opium poppy). The psychoactive compounds found in the opium plant include morphine, codeine, and thebaine. Opiates have long been used for a variety of medical conditions with evidence of opiate trade and use for pain relief as early as the eighth century AD.
One study found pain in 38 percent of people who were newly diagnosed, another found 35 percent of such people had experienced pain in the preceding two weeks, while another reported that pain was an early symptom in 18–49 percent of cases. More than one third of people with cancer pain describe the pain as moderate or severe. [53]
Mitragyna speciosa is a tropical evergreen tree of the Rubiaceae family (coffee family) native to Southeast Asia. [3] It is indigenous to Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Papua New Guinea, [4] where its leaves, known as kratom, have been used in herbal medicine since at least the 19th century. [5]
[194] [195] The newer semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic agent vinorelbine is used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer. [135] [196] It is another derivative dimer of vindoline and catharanthine and is synthesised from anhydrovinblastine, [197] starting either from leurosine [198] [199] or the monomers themselves. [135] [195]
A 2006 review found that controlled-release oxycodone is comparable to immediate-release oxycodone, morphine, and hydromorphone in management of moderate to severe cancer pain, with fewer side effects than morphine. The author concluded that the controlled-release form is a valid alternative to morphine and a first-line treatment for cancer ...
Once used almost exclusively for the treatment of acute pain or pain due to cancer, opioids are now prescribed liberally for people experiencing chronic pain. This has been accompanied by rising rates of accidental addiction and accidental overdoses leading to death.
Ephedrine works by inducing the release of norepinephrine and hence indirectly activating the α-and β-adrenergic receptors. [11] Chemically, ephedrine is a substituted amphetamine and is the (1R,2S)-enantiomer of β-hydroxy-N-methylamphetamine. [14] Ephedrine was first isolated in 1885 and came into commercial use in 1926.