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where is the density of the scintillator, is the average atomic number, is a constant that varies between 3 and 4, and is the energy of the photon. At low X-ray energies, scintillator materials with atoms with high atomic numbers and densities are favored for more efficient absorption of the incident radiation.
CsI(Tl) is only slightly hygroscopic and does not usually require an airtight enclosure. GaAs or gallium arsenide (suitably doped with silicon and boron impurities) is a cryogenic n-type semiconductor scintillator with a low cryogenic bandgap (1.52 eV) and high light output (100 photons/keV) in the infra-red (930 nm). The absence of thermally ...
Silver, added to zinc sulfide to produce a phosphor/scintillator used in radium dials, spinthariscopes, and as a common blue phosphor in color CRTs, and to zinc sulfide-cadmium sulfide used as a phosphor in black-and-white CRTs (where the ZnS/(Zn,Cd)S ratio determines the blue/yellow balance of the resulting white); short afterglow
Some signals do not have a sharp maximum, but short rise times . Typical input signals for CFDs are pulses from plastic scintillation counters, such as those used for lifetime measurement in positron annihilation experiments. The scintillator pulses have identical rise times that are much longer than the desired temporal resolution.
Cesium iodide (CsI) in crystalline form is used as the scintillator for the detection of protons and alpha particles. Sodium iodide (NaI) containing a small amount of thallium is used as a scintillator for the detection of gamma waves and zinc sulfide (ZnS) is widely used as a detector of alpha particles. Zinc sulfide is the material Rutherford ...
Examples for different notations (the instrumentation of John Adams' Harmonielehre is used here as an example): Written out in full: [ 4 ] 4 flutes (2,3,&4= piccolos ), 3 oboes (3= English horn ), 3 clarinets (3= bass clarinet ), bass clarinet, 3 bassoons , contrabassoon , 4 horns, 4 trumpets, 3 trombones, 2 tubas , timpani , percussion (4 ...
Musical symbols are marks and symbols in musical notation that indicate various aspects of how a piece of music is to be performed. There are symbols to communicate information about many musical elements, including pitch, duration, dynamics, or articulation of musical notes; tempo, metre, form (e.g., whether sections are repeated), and details about specific playing techniques (e.g., which ...
[6] [failed verification] Similar arguments apply to vibrating air columns in wind instruments (for example, "the French horn was originally a valveless instrument that could play only the notes of the harmonic series" [7]), although these are complicated by having the possibility of anti-nodes (that is, the air column is closed at one end and ...