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In computer science, type conversion, [1] [2] type casting, [1] [3] type coercion, [3] and type juggling [4] [5] are different ways of changing an expression from one data type to another. An example would be the conversion of an integer value into a floating point value or its textual representation as a string , and vice versa.
One discrete problem that is expensive to solve on many computers is that of counting the number of bits that are set to 1 in a (binary) number, sometimes called the population function. For example, the decimal number "37" is "00100101" in binary, so it contains three bits that are set to binary "1". [7]: 282
This is particularly used to measure that fraction of income accruing to top earners – top 10%, 1%, 0.1%, 0.01%, and also "top 100" earners or the like; in the US top 400 earners is 0.0002% of earners (2 in 1,000,000) – to study concentration of income – wealth condensation, or rather income condensation. For example, in the chart at ...
The Coleman–Liau index is a readability test designed by Meri Coleman and T. L. Liau to gauge the understandability of a text. Like the Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level, Gunning fog index, SMOG index, and Automated Readability Index, its output approximates the U.S. grade level thought necessary to comprehend the text.
From the Engel's law it is evident that food constitutes a large proportion of the budget of the poor, and therefore changes in related prices have a larger impact on the poor than on the rich. [8] Policies which raise agricultural prices will reduce real incomes of the poor proportionately more than they will reduce the incomes of the rich.
The positive predictive value (PPV), or precision, is defined as = + = where a "true positive" is the event that the test makes a positive prediction, and the subject has a positive result under the gold standard, and a "false positive" is the event that the test makes a positive prediction, and the subject has a negative result under the gold standard.
For example, if the wealthiest u = 20% of the population has f = 80% of all income (see Pareto principle), the income Gini coefficient is at least 60%. In another example, [27] if u = 1% of the world's population owns f = 50% of all wealth, the wealth Gini coefficient is at least 49%.
[2]: 182 [note 1] In pseudocode, the training algorithm for an OvR learner constructed from a binary classification learner L is as follows: Inputs: L, a learner (training algorithm for binary classifiers) samples X; labels y where y i ∈ {1, … K} is the label for the sample X i; Output: a list of classifiers f k for k ∈ {1, …, K} Procedure: