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The second and third lines of defense operate by making changes to the buffers, each of which consists of two components: a weak acid and its conjugate base. [ 5 ] [ 13 ] It is the ratio concentration of the weak acid to its conjugate base that determines the pH of the solution. [ 14 ]
The skin interfaces with the environment and is the first line of defense from external factors. For example, the skin plays a key role in protecting the body against pathogens [3] and excessive water loss. [4] Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, and the production of vitamin D folates.
Innate immune system cells prevent free growth of microorganisms within the body, but many pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade it. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] One strategy is intracellular replication, as practised by Mycobacterium tuberculosis , or wearing a protective capsule, which prevents lysis by complement and by phagocytes, as in Salmonella ...
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An example is the skin on the forearm, which is on average 1.3 mm in males and 1.26 mm in females. [4] One average square inch (6.5 cm 2 ) of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than 1,000 nerve endings.
Human anatomy is the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human. It is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy . Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision.
The tonsils are a compact mass that points away from the lumen of the pharynx. In the horse, the auditory tube opens into the guttural pouch and the tonsils are diffuse and raised slightly. Horses are unable to breathe through the mouth as the free apex of the rostral epiglottis lies dorsal to the soft palate in a normal horse.
Diagram of water vascular system of a starfish, showing the ring canal, the radial canals, ampullae (small bulbs), and tube feet Echinoderms possess a unique water vascular system, a network of fluid-filled canals modified from the coelom (body cavity) that function in gas exchange, feeding, sensory reception and locomotion.