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Interactions can be direct when physical contact is established or indirect, through intermediaries such as shared resources, territories, ecological services, metabolic waste, toxins or growth inhibitors. This type of relationship can be shown by net effect based on individual effects on both organisms arising out of relationship.
When it appears that the choosy sex does not receive direct benefits from his or her mate, indirect benefits may be the payoff for being selective. These indirect benefits may include high-quality genes for their offspring (known as adaptive indirect benefits) or genes that make their offspring more attractive (known as arbitrary indirect ...
Fungi's relationship to plants in the form of mycelium evolved from parasitism and commensalism. Under certain conditions species of fungi previously in a state of mutualism can turn parasitic on weak or dying plants. [24] Likewise the symbiotic relationship of clown fish and sea anemones emerged from a commensalist relationship.
In indirect structures of reciprocity, each actor is depended not on a single other, as in direct forms of exchange, but on all actors who contribute to maintaining the collective system. [4] Generalized exchange according to this logic, is a common feature of business organizations, neighborhoods, and the vast and growing network of online ...
Direct intraspecific competition also includes animals claiming a territory which then excludes other animals from entering the area. There may not be an actual conflict between the two competitors, but the animal excluded from the territory suffers a fitness loss due to a reduced foraging area and is unable to enter the area as it risks ...
Remora are specially adapted to attach themselves to larger fish (or other animals, in this case a sea turtle) that provide locomotion and food.. Commensalism is a long-term biological interaction in which members of one species gain benefits while those of the other species neither benefit nor are harmed. [1]
Thus, the success of species A was to the detriment of species B — not because they competed for resources, but because their increased numbers had indirect effects on the predator population. This one-predator/two-prey model has been explored by ecologists as early as 1925, but the term "apparent competition" was first coined by University ...
Direct reciprocity was proposed by Robert Trivers as a mechanism for the evolution of cooperation. [1] If there are repeated encounters between the same two players in an evolutionary game in which each of them can choose either to "cooperate" or "defect", then a strategy of mutual cooperation may be favoured even if it pays each player, in the short term, to defect when the other cooperates.