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The hook effect refers to the prozone phenomenon, also known as antibody excess, or the postzone phenomenon, also known as antigen excess. It is an immunologic phenomenon whereby the effectiveness of antibodies to form immune complexes can be impaired when concentrations of an antibody or an antigen are very high.
Medical providers often struggle to 'rule out' pregnancy for medical testing or treatment that cannot be conducted during pregnancy before they can do an accurate urine pregnancy test. [ 27 ] More rare, false negative results can also occur due to a " hook effect ", where a sample with a very high level of hCG is tested without dilution ...
Antigen tests such as the pregnancy test shows positive line via the formation of a sandwich immune complex that allows the positive line to be visible, in the occurrence of Hook Effect, large amounts of analyte exists in the solution which saturates the antibodies, preventing normal binding and formation of the sandwich immune complex ...
Progesterone causes many changes to the genitourinary system. A pregnant woman may experience an increase in the size of the kidneys and ureter due to the increase blood volume and vasculature. Later in pregnancy, the woman might develop physiological hydronephrosis and hydroureter, which are normal. [33]
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Prolactin has a wide variety of effects. It stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk (): increased serum concentrations of prolactin during pregnancy cause enlargement of the mammary glands and prepare for milk production, which normally starts when levels of progesterone fall by the end of pregnancy and a suckling stimulus is present.
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The MSNBC host ran down a list of New York politicians who sought to get a new tunnel built, including the late Sen. Daniel Patrick Moynihan as well as several governors and mayors.
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