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This is a timeline of subatomic particle discoveries, including all particles thus far discovered which appear to be elementary (that is, indivisible) given the best available evidence. It also includes the discovery of composite particles and antiparticles that were of particular historical importance.
The liquefying of gases helped to establish that gases are the vapours of liquids possessing a very low boiling point and gave a more solid basis to the concept of molecular aggregation. In 1820 Faraday reported the first synthesis of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C 2 Cl 6 and CCl 4, and published his results the following year.
2023 – Physicists from US and China discovered a new state of matter called the chiral bose-liquid state [29] 2024 – Harvard researchers working with Quantinuum announced a new phase of matter non-Abelian topological order [30]
1967 – Solar neutrino problem found; 1967 – Pulsars (rotating neutron stars) discovered; 1968 – Experimental evidence for quarks found; 1968 – Vera Rubin: Dark matter theories; 1970–73 – Standard Model of elementary particles invented; 1971 – Helium 3 superfluidity; 1971–75 – Michael Fisher, Kenneth G. Wilson, and Leo Kadanoff ...
Pais, Abraham ; Inward Bound – Of Matter & Forces in the Physical World, Oxford University Press (1986) ISBN 0-19-851997-4 Written by a former Einstein assistant at Princeton, this is a beautiful detailed history of modern fundamental physics, from 1895 (discovery of X-rays) to 1983 (discovery of vectors bosons at C.E.R.N.)
Identifying the gas chemically proved frustrating; Rutherford and Frederick Soddy found it to be inert, much like argon. It later came to be known as radon . Rutherford identified beta rays as cathode rays (electrons), and hypothesised—and in 1909 with Thomas Royds proved—that alpha particles were helium nuclei.
His experiments to determine the nature of positively charged particles, with Francis William Aston, were the first use of mass spectrometry and led to the development of the mass spectrograph. [1] [2] Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases. [3]
He found that nitrogen, and other light elements, ejected a proton, which he called a "hydrogen atom", when hit with α (alpha) particles. [23] In particular, he showed that particles ejected by alpha particles colliding with hydrogen have unit charge and 1/4 the momentum of alpha particles.