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In particular, butyrate inhibits colonic tumor cells and stimulates proliferation of healthy colonic epithelial cells. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] The explanation why butyrate is an energy source for normal colonocytes and induces apoptosis in colon cancer cells, is the Warburg effect in cancer cells, which leads to butyrate not being properly metabolized.
Butyrate fermentation is a process that produces butyric acid via anaerobic bacteria. This process occurs commonly in clostridia which can be isolated from many anaerobic environments such as mud, fermented foods , and intestinal tracts or feces. [ 1 ]
Ketogenesis is the biochemical process through which organisms produce ketone bodies by breaking down fatty acids and ketogenic amino acids. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The process supplies energy to certain organs, particularly the brain , heart and skeletal muscle , under specific scenarios including fasting , caloric restriction , sleep, [ 3 ] or others.
[1] [3] Macronutrient composition (carbohydrate, protein or fat) of diets affects circulating SCFAs. [4] Acetate, propionate and butyrate are the three most common SCFAs. [ 3 ] Butyrate is particularly important for colon health because it is the primary energy source for colonocytes (the epithelial cells of the colon).
Peptide YY is a short (36-amino acid) peptide released from cells in the ileum and colon in response to feeding. In the blood, gut, and other elements of periphery, PYY acts to reduce appetite; similarly, when injected directly into the central nervous system, PYY is also anorexigenic , i.e., it reduces appetite.
Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non-cellular structures such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted into smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy such as for carbohydrates , lipids , proteins and fermentation products ...
Each protein molecule is composed of amino acids which contain nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance).
Fat has a food energy content of 38 kilojoules per gram (9 kilocalories per gram) proteins and carbohydrates 17 kJ/g (4 kcal/g). [ 2 ] Water makes up a large proportion of the total mass ingested as part of a normal diet but it does not provide any nutritional value.