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The clock rate of the first generation of computers was measured in hertz or kilohertz (kHz), the first personal computers (PCs) to arrive throughout the 1970s and 1980s had clock rates measured in megahertz (MHz), and in the 21st century the speed of modern CPUs is commonly advertised in gigahertz (GHz).
For example, a system with an external clock of 100 MHz and a 36x clock multiplier will have an internal CPU clock of 3.6 GHz. The external address and data buses of the CPU (often collectively termed front side bus (FSB) in PC contexts) also use the external clock as a fundamental timing base; however, they could also employ a (small) multiple ...
DDR4 speeds are advertised as double the base clock rate due to its Double Data Rate (DDR) nature, with common speeds including DDR4-2400 and DDR4-3200, and higher speeds like DDR4-4266 and DDR4-5000 available at a premium. Unlike DDR3, DDR4 does not have a low voltage variant; it consistently operates at 1.2 V. Additionally, DDR4 improves on ...
As of 2018, many Intel microprocessors are able to exceed a base clock speed of 4 GHz (Intel Core i7-7700K and i3-7350K have a base clock speed of 4.20 GHz, for example). In 2011, AMD was first able to break the 4 GHz barrier for x86 microprocessors with the debut of the initial Bulldozer based AMD FX CPUs. In June 2013, AMD released the FX ...
Then, the base memory clock will operate at (Memory Divider) × (FSB) = 1 × 200 = 200 MHz and the effective memory clock would be 400 MHz since it is a DDR system ("DDR" stands for Double Data Rate; the effective memory clock speed is double the actual clock speed). The CPU will operate at 10 × 200 MHz = 2.0 GHz.
With two transfers per cycle of a quadrupled clock signal, a 64-bit wide DDR3 module may achieve a transfer rate of up to 64 times the memory clock speed. With data being transferred 64 bits at a time per memory module, DDR3 SDRAM gives a transfer rate of (memory clock rate) × 4 (for bus clock multiplier) × 2 (for data rate) × 64 (number of ...
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The frequency at which a processor (CPU) operates is determined by applying a clock multiplier to the front-side bus (FSB) speed in some cases. For example, a processor running at 3200 MHz might be using a 400 MHz FSB. This means there is an internal clock multiplier setting (also called bus/core ratio) of 8. That is, the CPU is set to run at 8 ...