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Phase margin and gain margin are two measures of stability for a feedback control system. They indicate how much the gain or the phase of the system can vary before it becomes unstable. Phase margin is the difference (expressed as a positive number) between 180° and the phase shift where the magnitude of the loop transfer function is 0 dB.
The open-loop gain from Figure 8 at f 180 is 58 dB, and 1 / β = 77 dB, so the gain margin is 19 dB. Stability is not the sole criterion for amplifier response, and in many applications a more stringent demand than stability is good step response.
By selecting a point along the root locus that coincides with a desired damping ratio and natural frequency, a gain K can be calculated and implemented in the controller. More elaborate techniques of controller design using the root locus are available in most control textbooks: for instance, lag, lead , PI, PD and PID controllers can be ...
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The slope of the downward leg of the gain plot is (20 dB/decade); for every factor of ten increase in frequency, the gain drops by the same factor: =. The phase margin is the departure of the phase at f 0 dB from −180°. Thus, the margin is:
Randomly varying channel gains such as fading are taken into account by adding some margin depending on the anticipated severity of its effects. The amount of margin required can be reduced by the use of mitigating techniques such as antenna diversity or multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO). A simple link budget equation looks like this:
The closed-loop transfer function is measured at the output. The output signal can be calculated from the closed-loop transfer function and the input signal. Signals may be waveforms, images, or other types of data streams.
Profit margin is calculated with selling price (or revenue) taken as base times 100. It is the percentage of selling price that is turned into profit, whereas "profit percentage" or "markup" is the percentage of cost price that one gets as profit on top of cost price.