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Integer are reference objects, on the surface no different from List, Object, and so forth. To convert from an int to an Integer, one had to "manually" instantiate the Integer object. As of J2SE 5.0, the compiler will accept the last line, and automatically transform it so that an Integer object is created to store the value 9. [2]
Even when function arguments are passed using "call by value" semantics (which is always the case in Java, and is the case by default in C#), a value of a reference type is intrinsically a reference; so if a parameter belongs to a reference type, the resulting behavior bears some resemblance to "call by reference" semantics.
C# has a built-in data type decimal consisting of 128 bits resulting in 28–29 significant digits. It has an approximate range of ±1.0 × 10 −28 to ±7.9228 × 10 28. [1] Starting with Python 2.4, Python's standard library includes a Decimal class in the module decimal. [2] Ruby's standard library includes a BigDecimal class in the module ...
Provides several types and functions related to exception handling, including std::exception, the base class of all exceptions thrown by the Standard Library. <initializer_list> Added in C++11. Provides initializer list support. <limits> Provides the class template std::numeric_limits, used for describing properties of fundamental numeric types ...
Function object: with a single method (in C++, the function operator, operator()) it acts much like a function; Immutable object: does not change state after creation; First-class object: can be used without restriction; Container object: contains other objects; Factory object: creates other objects; Metaobject: from which other objects can be ...
A closure-constructing operator creates a function object from a part of the program: the part of code given as an argument to the operator is part of the function, and so is the lexical environment: the bindings of the lexically visible variables are captured and stored in the function object, which is more commonly called a closure.
A class in C++ is a user-defined type or data structure declared with any of the keywords class, struct or union (the first two are collectively referred to as non-union classes) that has data and functions (also called member variables and member functions) as its members whose access is governed by the three access specifiers private, protected or public.
A program can convert a pointer to any type of data (except a function pointer) to a pointer to void and back to the original type without losing information, which makes these pointers useful for polymorphic functions. The C language standard does not guarantee that the different pointer types have the same size or alignment.