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In the normal kidney, the urinary collecting system in the renal sinus is not visible, but it creates a heteroechoic appearance with the interposed fat and vessels. The parenchyma is more hypoechoic and homogenous and is divided into the outermost cortex and the innermost and slightly less echogenic medullary pyramids.
In contrast, tissues with lower echogenicity are called "hypoechoic" and are usually represented with darker colors. Areas that lack echogenicity are called "anechoic" and are usually displayed as completely dark. [1]
Benign liver tumors generally develop on normal or fatty liver, are single or multiple (generally paucilocular), have distinct delineation, with increased echogenity (hemangiomas, benign focal nodular hyperplasia) or absent, with posterior acoustic enhancement effect (cysts), have distinct delineation (hydatid cyst), lack of vascularization or show a characteristic circulatory pattern ...
It normally ranges from 1.003 to 1.035; lower values indicate that the urine is dilute, while higher values mean that it is concentrated. A urine specific gravity that consistently remains around 1.010 (isosthenuria) can indicate kidney damage, as it suggests that the kidneys have lost the ability to control urine concentration. [39]
In urine cytology, collected urine is examined microscopically. One limitation, however, is the inability to definitively identify low-grade cancer cells and urine cytology is used mostly to identify high-grade tumors. [4] If the test detects atypical or cancerous cells, further tests may be recommended, such as cystoscopy and a CT scan.
The most common type of cast, hyaline casts are solidified Tamm–Horsfall mucoprotein secreted from the tubular epithelial cells of individual nephrons. Low urine flow, concentrated urine, or an acidic environment can contribute to the formation of hyaline casts, and as such, they may be seen in normal individuals in dehydration or vigorous exercise.
The syndrome presents with hematuria (blood in the urine) and flank (a region of the lower back beneath the ribs and above the ilium) pain which can result from a number of causes. Nonglomerular causes of bleeding (e.g., urinary infection, tumor, or nephrolithiasis) must be excluded.
Automatic analysis of urine test strips using automated urine test strip analysers is a well-established practice in modern-day urinalysis. They can measure calcium , blood, glucose, bilirubin, urobilinogen, ketones, leukocytes, creatinine , microalbumin , pH, ascorbic acid and protein.