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Citing inadequacies with current practices in listing authors of papers in medical research journals, Drummond Rennie and co-authors, writing in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in 1997, called for: a radical conceptual and systematic change, to reflect the realities of multiple authorship and to buttress accountability.
The journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) has an editorial policy that specifies "authorship should be limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work" and furthermore, "authors are strongly encouraged to indicate their specific contributions" as a footnote.
In 1982 Cross published a journal article 'Designerly Ways of Knowing', [9] drawing on design research to show Design as having its own intellectual and practical culture as a basis for education, and contrasting it with cultures of Science and Arts & Humanities. This was a clarification of the idea that "There are things to know, ways of ...
A research design typically outlines the theories and models underlying a project; the research question(s) of a project; a strategy for gathering data and information; and a strategy for producing answers from the data. [1] A strong research design yields valid answers to research questions while weak designs yield unreliable, imprecise or ...
Content usually takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, or book reviews.The purpose of an academic journal, according to Henry Oldenburg (the first editor of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society), is to give researchers a venue to "impart their knowledge to one another, and contribute what they can to the Grand design of improving natural knowledge ...
It also gives credit to authors whose work they use and helps avoid plagiarism. The topic of dual publication (also known as self-plagiarism) has been addressed by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), as well as in the research literature itself. [44] [45] [46] Each scholarly journal uses a specific format for citations (also known as ...
In many academic subjects, including the natural sciences, computer science and electrical engineering, the lead author of a research article is typically the person who carried out the research and wrote and edited the paper. The list of trailing co-authors reflects, typically, diminishing contributions to the work reported in the manuscript.
Being named as an author on many papers is good for an academic's career. Failure to adhere to authorship standards is rarely punished. [52] To avoid misreported authorship, a requirement that all authors describe the contribution they made to the study ("movie-style credits") has been advocated for. [53] Ghostwriters may be legally liable for ...
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