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The composition of monocyte-derived macrophages and tissue-resident macrophages in the tumor microenvironment depends on the tumor type, stage, size, and location, thus it has been proposed that TAM identity and heterogeneity is the outcome of interactions between tumor-derived, tissue-specific, and developmental signals. [2]
[98] [99] Some tumors can also produce factors, including M-CSF/CSF1, MCP-1/CCL2 and Angiotensin II, that trigger the amplification and mobilization of macrophages in tumors. [100] [101] [102] Additionally, subcapsular sinus macrophages in tumor-draining lymph nodes can suppress cancer progression by containing the spread of tumor-derived ...
The tumor microenvironment promotes the M2-polarized macrophages, and an increased amount of tumor-associated macrophages is associated with worse prognosis. [16] [54] [55] Tumor-associated macrophages are associated with using exosomes to deliver invasion-potentiating microRNA into cancerous cells, specifically breast cancer cells. [50] [56]
Schematic of tumor microenvironment of breast cancer. Cancers secrete many signals including colony stimulating factor which activates TAM CSF1R and promotes tumor growth and survival. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) react to early stage cancers with anti-inflammatory immune responses that support tumor survival at the expense of healthy ...
Nitric oxide is then released from the macrophage and, because of its toxicity, kills microbes near the macrophage. [14] Activated macrophages produce and secrete tumor necrosis factor . This cytokine —a class of signaling molecule [ 39 ] —kills cancer cells and cells infected by viruses, and helps to activate the other cells of the immune ...
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), formerly known as TNF-α, is a chemical messenger produced by the immune system that induces inflammation. [5] TNF is produced primarily by activated macrophages, and induces inflammation by binding to its receptors on other cells. [6]
Moreover, evidence suggests that tumor-associated stroma are a prerequisite for metastasis and tumor cell invasion. These are known to arise from at least six different origins: immune cells, macrophages, adipocytes, fibroblasts, pericytes, and bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells. [9]
Macrophage polarization is a process by which macrophages adopt different functional programs in response to the signals from their microenvironment. This ability is connected to their multiple roles in the organism: they are powerful effector cells of the innate immune system, but also important in removal of cellular debris, embryonic development and tissue repair.