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Each antibody binds to a specific antigen in a highly specific interaction analogous to a lock and key.. An antibody (Ab) or immunoglobulin (Ig) is a large, Y-shaped protein belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily which is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize antigens such as bacteria and viruses, including those that cause disease.
An example of a neutralizing antibody is diphtheria antitoxin, which can neutralize the biological effects of diphtheria toxin. [7] Neutralizing antibodies are not effective against extracellular bacteria, as the binding of antibodies does not prevent bacteria from replicating.
Hapten-specific antibodies are used in broad area of different immunoassays, immunobiosensor technologies and immunoaffinity chromatography purification columns; those antibodies could be used to detect small environmental contaminants, drugs of abuse, vitamins, hormones, metabolites, food toxins and environmental pollutants.
Scheme of the complement system. The complement system, also known as complement cascade, is a part of the humoral, innate immune system and enhances (complements) the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promote inflammation, and attack the pathogen's cell membrane. [1]
Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include Streptococcus (protein G), Staphylococcus aureus (protein A), and Peptostreptococcus magnus (protein L). [174] The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated.
The discovery dates of the vitamins and their sources Year of discovery Vitamin Food source 1913: Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil: 1910: Vitamin B 1 (Thiamine) Rice bran: 1920: Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods 1920: Vitamin D (Calciferol) Cod liver oil 1920: Vitamin B 2 (Riboflavin) Meat, dairy products, eggs: 1922: Vitamin ...
Antibiotics work by either killing bacteria directly or preventing their growth and spread. “Because if it can’t grow, it will die,” Hai Tran , clinical pharmacist and associate director of ...
Natural phenols are a class of molecules found in abundance in plants. Many common foods contain rich sources of polyphenols which have antioxidant properties only in test tube studies. As interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute, dietary polyphenols have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion. [7]