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For energy much less than the mass of the W-boson, the effective theory becomes the current–current contact interaction of the Fermi theory, + . However, gauge invariance now requires that the component W 3 {\displaystyle W^{3}} of the gauge field also be coupled to a current that lies in the triplet of SU(2).
For head-on collisions between alpha particles and the nucleus, all the kinetic energy of the alpha particle is turned into potential energy and the particle stops and turns back. [17]: 5 Schematic view of a head-on collision between an alpha particle and an atom.
However, perturbation theory (and with it the concept of a "force-mediating particle") fails in other situations. These include low-energy quantum chromodynamics, bound states , and solitons . The interactions between all the particles described by the Standard Model are summarized by the diagrams on the right of this section.
Particle physics or high-energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The field also studies combinations of elementary particles up to the scale of protons and neutrons , while the study of combination of protons and neutrons is called nuclear physics .
Q is for quantum: an encyclopedia of particle physics. New York, NY: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-684-85578-3. Oerter, Robert (2006). The theory of almost everything: the Standard Model, the unsung triumph of modern physics. New York, NY: Pi Press. ISBN 978-0-452-28786-0. Schumm, Bruce A. (2004). Deep down things: the breathtaking beauty of particle ...
The field equations of condensed matter physics are remarkably similar to those of high energy particle physics. As a result, much of the theory of particle physics applies to condensed matter physics as well; in particular, there are a selection of field excitations, called quasi-particles, that can be created and explored. These include:
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the mass–energy equivalence formula which gives the energy in terms of the momentum and the rest mass of a particle. The equation for the mass shell is also often written in terms of the four-momentum ; in Einstein notation with metric signature (+,−,−,−) and units where the speed of light c = 1 {\displaystyle c=1} , as p μ p μ ≡ p ...